Sanskrit Slogans With English Meanings

श्लोकार्धेन प्रवक्ष्यामि यदुक्तं ग्रन्थकोटिभिः ।
परोपकारः पुण्याय पापाय परपीडनम् ॥


What is stated by cores of volumes, I shall present by half a stanza - 'doing good to others is for merit and causing pain to others is for sin.'

-- ॐ --

उद्यमेनैव सिध्यन्ति कार्याणि न मनोरथै: ।
न हि सुप्तस्य सिंहस्य प्रविशन्ति मुखे मृगा: ॥

udyamenaiva sidhyanti karyaaNi na manorathaiH
na hi suptasya simhasya pravisanti mukhe mRRigaaH

Only with industry and effort are works done. Animals never themselve enter lion's mouth.

-- ॐ --

अयं निज: परो वेति गणना लघुचेतसाम् ।
उदारचरितानां तु वसुधैव कुटुम्बकम् ॥

ayam nijaH paro veti gaNanaa laghuchetasaam
udaaracharitaam tu vasudhaiva kutumbakam

He is mine and he is other, is the thought that narrow minded people have. For noble people, entire world is family.

-- ॐ --

सदयं हृदयं यस्य भाषितं सत्यभूषितम् ।
कायः परहिते यस्य कलिस्तस्य करोति किम् ॥


What harm can Kalipurusa do to him whose heart is full of kindness, whose speech is adorned with truth and whose body is for the good of others.

-- ॐ --

न कश्चिदपि जानाति
किं कस्य श्वो भविष्यति ।
अतः श्वः करणीयानि
कुर्यादद्धैव वुद्धिमान् ॥


No one knows what will happen tomorrow. So, wise people do today what should be done tommorow.

-- ॐ --

आचार्यात् पादमादते पादं शिष्यः स्वमेधया ।
पादं सब्रह्मचारिभ्यः पादं कालक्रमेण च ॥


A student learns a quarter from teacher, a quarter from own intelligence, a quarter from fellow students, and the rest in course of time.

-- ॐ --

उपकारिषु यः साधुः सधुत्वे तस्य को गुणः ।
अपकारिषु यः साधुः स साधुरिति कीर्तितः ॥


If one does good to those who do good, what merit is one's goodness? It is only who does good to even those who do harm to him, is called a saint.

-- ॐ --

च्छायामन्यस्य कुर्वन्ति तिष्ठन्ति स्वयमातपे ।
फलान्यापि परार्थाय वृक्षाः सत्पुरुषाः इव ॥


Trees stand in sun and give shade to others. Their fruits are also for others. Similarly good people go through all hardships for welfare of others.

-- ॐ --

अङ्गं गलितं पलितं मुन्डं दशनवीहीनं जातं तुन्डम् ।
बृद्धो यति गृहीत्वा दन्डं तदापि न मुञ्चत्याशापिन्डम् ॥


The body is drooping, the head is grey-haired, the mouth has no teeth, growing old, the man moves with a staff. Yet the knot of desire has not been loosened.

-- ॐ --

आशायाः ये दासाः ते दासाः सर्वलोकस्य ।
आशा येषां दासी तेषां दासायते लोकः ॥


Those who are the slaves of 'desire' are slaves of the entire world. But world itself is the slave of those to whom 'desire' is a slave.

-- ॐ --

जलबिन्दुनिपातेन क्रमशः पूर्यते घटः ।
स हेतुः सर्वविद्यानां धर्मस्य च धनस्य च ॥


With each drop of water the pitcher gradually gets filled. Similarly knowledge, merit and wealth are acquired.

-- ॐ --

स्व्भावं न जहात्येव साधुरापद्गतोऽपि सन् ।
कर्पूरः पाव्कस्पृष्टः सौरभं लभतेतराम् ॥


A good person never gives up his nature even when he is caught in calamity. Camphor caught with fire emits more frgrance.

-- ॐ --

आरभन्तेऽल्पमेवाज्ञाः कामं व्यग्रा भवन्ति च ।
महारम्भाः कृतधियः तिष्ठन्ति च निराकुलाः ॥


The ignorant start only petty works and become agitated. The wise start great deeds with discretion and never get agitated.

-- ॐ --

रत्नैर्महाब्धेस्तुतुषुर्न देवा न भोजिरे भीमविषेण भीतिम् ।
सुधां विना न प्रययुर्विरामं न निश्चितार्थाद्विरमन्ति धीराः ॥


While churning the ocen fornectar, Gods were not pleased with gems secured from ocean. Nor did they entertain fear when they secured the terrible poison. They churned the ocean until they got nectar. Thus persons with determination do not swerve from their goal.

-- ॐ --

विपदि धैर्यमथाभ्युदये क्षमा सदसि वस्क्पटुता युधि विक्रमः ।
यशसि चाभिरुचिर्व्यसनं श्रुतौ प्रकृतिसिद्धमिदं हि महात्मनाम् ॥


'Courage in adversity, patience in prosperity, oratory in assembly, bravery in battle, full of interest in fame, attachment to knowledge, all these are naturally found in the great persons.'

-- ॐ --

त्यागो गुणो वित्तवतां वितं त्यागवतां गुणः ।
परस्परवियुक्तौ तु वित्तत्यागौ विडम्बना ॥


If the rich have a mind to give money, it is indeed a merit. If the generous persons have enough money, it is also a merit. What to do? Wealth and generosity do not go together! It is an ironical fact.

-- ॐ --

लभेत सिकतासु तैलमपि यत्नतः पीडयन्
पिबेच्च मृगतृष्णिकासु सलिलं पिपासर्दितः ॥
कदाचिदपि पर्यटन् शशविषाणमासादयेत्
न तु प्रतिनिविष्टमूर्खजनचित्तमाराधयेत् ॥


Squeezing with efforts one can get oil from sand. A thirsty person may drink water from the mirage. Sometimes while wandering one may find the horns of hare. But it is impossible to please the minds of determined fools.

-- ॐ --

पद्माकरं दिनकरो विकचिकरोति
चन्द्रो विकासयति कैरवचक्रवालम् ।
नाभ्यर्थितो जलधरोऽपि जलं ददाति
सन्तः स्वयं परहिते निहिताभियोगाः ॥


The sun causes the lotus to bloom. The moon on his own makes the lily to bloom. The cloud too, without being asked, gives water. Great souls are always taking the initiatives to do good to others.

-- ॐ --

यदा किज्न्चिज्झोऽहं गज इव मदान्धः समभवम्
तदा सर्वझोऽस्मीत्यभवदवलिप्तं मम मनः ।
यदा किज़्नित् किज़्नित् वुधजनसकाशादवगतम्
तदा मूर्खोऽस्मीमिति ज्वर इव मदो मे व्यपगतः ॥


Knowing a little, I got blind with pride like an elephant. Then I got proud thinking myself omniscient. When I learnt bit by bit from the learned and realised that I am ignorant, the pride subsided like fever.

-- ॐ --

पापान्निवारयति योजयते हिताय
गुह्यां निगूहति गुणान् प्रकटीकरोति ।
आपद्गतं च न जहाति ददाति काले
सन्मित्रलक्षणमिदं प्रवदन्ति सन्तः ॥


Wards off sin; prompts for good deed, conceals the secret; reveals the merits; does not leave (the friend) in distress; renders help in crisis - these the wise say, are characteristics of a good friend.

-- ॐ --

व्याघ्रीव तिष्ठति जरा परितर्जयन्ती
रोगाश्च शत्रव इव प्रहरन्ति देहम् ।
आयुः परिस्रवति भिन्नघटादिवाम्भः
लोकस्तथाप्यहितमाचरतीति चित्रम् ॥


Old age frightens man like a tiger. Deseases strike the body like enemies. Life-time is dripping down as water from a broken pot. Yet people think of harming others. They do not realise that they are transitory. This is indeed a matter of wonder.

-- ॐ --

न सा सभा यत्स् न सन्ति वृद्धाः
वृद्धा न ते ये न वदन्ति धर्मम् ।
धर्मो न वै यत्र च नास्ति सत्यम्
सत्यं न तद्यच्छलनानुविद्धम् ॥


It is not an assembly where there are no elders. They are not elders if they do not teach Dharma. It is not Dharma if it does not contain truth. It is not truth at all if it is charged with decite.

-- ॐ --

ववनेऽपि सिंहा मृगमांसभक्षिणो
बुभुक्षिता नैव तृणं चरन्ति ।
एवं कुलीना व्यसनाभिभुता
न निचकर्मणि समचरन्ति ॥


Lions which feed on the flesh of wild animals do not eat grass when badly haungry. Similarly persons of noble origin do not follow bad paths when they are overpowered by adversity.

-- ॐ --

गुणायन्ते दोषाः सुजनवदने दुर्जनमुखे
गुणा दोषायन्ते तदिदमपि नो विस्मयपदम् ।
महामेघः क्षारं पिबति कुरुते वारि मधुरं
फणी क्षीरं पीत्वा वमति गरलं दुःसहतरम् ॥


Defects turn into virtues when they come from the good persons. Virtues turn into defects when they come from wicked. This is not an occasion to be surprised. The great cloud drinks salty water and makes rain water sweet. The serpent drinks milk, but emits intolerable poison.

-- ॐ --

अकरुणत्वमकारणविग्रहः ।
परधने परयोषिति च स्पृहा ॥
सुजनबन्धुजनेष्वसाहिष्णुता ।
परकृतिसिद्धामिदं हि दुरात्मनाम् ॥


Cruelity, unprovoked opposition, lust of other's wealth and wife, and envy of good men and relations; these are natural with the wicked.

-- ॐ --

दुर्जनः परिहर्तव्यो विद्येया भूषितोपि सन् ।
मणिनालंकृतः सर्पः किमसौ न भयंकरः ॥


Though adorned with learning a wicked man should be avoided. Is not a serpent dangerous, though it is bedecked with jewel?

-- ॐ --

जाड्यं ह्रीमाति गण्यते व्रतरुचौ दम्भः शुचौ कैतवं
शूरे निर्घुणता मुनौ विमतिता दैन्यं प्रियालापिनि ।
तेजस्विन्यवलित्पता मुखरता वक्तर्यशक्तिः स्थिरे
तत्को नाम गुणो भवेत्स गुणिनां यो दुर्जनैर्नाङ्कितः ॥


Dullness is attributed to a modest man; hypocrisy to one who has a liking for religious observances; roguery to one who leads a life of sanctity; cruelty to a warrior; want of discrimination to one devoted to meditation; meanness to one who speaks agreeably; arrogance to a spirited man; garrulity to an orator; and imbecility to a steady man. What virtue is there then that is not stigmatised by the wicked?

-- ॐ --

लोभश्चेदगुणेन किं पिशुनता यद्यस्ति किं पातकैः
सत्यं चेत्तपसा च किं शुचि मनो यद्यस्ति तीर्थेन किम् ।
सौजन्यं यदि किं निजैः स्वमहिमा यद्यस्ति किं मण्डनैः
सद्विद्या यदि किं धनैरपयशो यद्यस्ति किं मृत्युना ॥


If greed is part of a man's character, why should he need other bad qualities; if there is wickedness, why want sins; if truthfulness why need religious austerities; if there is purity of why should he go one a pilgrimage? If he has goodness of heart why should he want relatives? If he has reputation, ornaments are superflous. If he possessess learning, what need he care for wealth; if he has a bad name why should he need death?

-- ॐ --

मौनान्मूकः प्रचनपटुश्चाटुलो जल्पको वा
घृष्टः पाश्चेर् भवति च वसन्दूरतोप्यप्रगल्भः ।
क्षान्त्या भीरुर्यादि न सहते प्रायशो नाभिजातः
सेवाधर्मः परमगहनो यो्गिनामप्यगम्यः ॥


The duty of service is most difficult to be understood; it is beyond the understanding of even sages; (for a servant is called), is called dumb if he is silent! (if he is) ready with answer, he is talkative or garrulous; if he stands near, he is impident; and if he keeps at a distance, he is timid; if he bears patiently, he is a coward; if he can not brook (harash words, insults), he is generally considered unmannerly.

-- ॐ --

Some characteristics of Sanskrit

Some characteristics of Sanskrit

This note provides a panoramic view of Sanskrit as a language. It does nor claim to cover all the features of Sanskrit nor does it deal with any characteristic in any depth. It often happens that a student of Sanskrit, in his attempt to climb the mountain of Sanskrit language too engrossed with his next step is unable to get a birds eye view of the language. He fails to see the wood for the trees. Here is an humble attempt to help him get a perspective.

phonetic, punctuation, genders, numbers, cases, persons, adjectives, verbs, active and passive voice, tenses and moods, causals, indeclinables, verbal derivatives, compound words, sandhi, double entendre, direct speech, verses

1. Sanskrit is phonetic:

If you know how to spell a word, you also know how to pronounce it. If you know how to pronounce a word, you know how to spell it. That is, there is a one to one correspondence between spelling and pronunciation. It is true for most Indian languages. It is not true for English.

2. Punctuation:

Sanskrit by itself contains only "|" to indicate an end of a sentence or half of a verse and "||" to indicate the end of a complete verse. However, with the advent of the printed book, most punctuation marks used in English are also being used in printed Sanskrit text. Punctuation certainly helps in following the text. [There is अवग्रह symbol "s" in Sanskrit to indicate अ which is lost in liaising. Its antiquity is not known]

3. Genders:

In English, gender of a noun denoting an inanimate object, collection or an abstraction is generally neuter. In Sanskrit, it could be any of the three- masculine, feminine or neuter. Often, the gender is determined by how a word is derived. Some words can be used in  two or all of the three genders. While learning a new word it is important to learn its gender too.

4. Numbers:

In English, there are only two numbers: singular and plural. In Sanskrit there are three: singular, dual and plural [एकवचन, द्विवचन, बहुवचन]. The noun undergoes appropriate inflexions to indicate the number. Example: फलम्= fruit;  फले= two fruits; फलानि= many (more than two) fruits.

4. Cases:

In English, the case of a noun in a sentence is determined by its position in the sentence or by prepositions preceding the noun. In Sanskrit, the stem of the noun itself gets inflected. Such inflexions occur in many Indian languages, although not in Hindi. The Table below which is in fact रामशब्द will clarify how nouns get inflected depending upon the case and number:

	एकवचनः	द्विवचनः	बहुवचनः
	Singular	Dual	Plural
प्रथमा विभक्तिः	रामः	रामौ	रामाः
Nominative case(subject)	Raama	two Raamaas	many (more than two) raamaas
सम्बोधनप्रथमा विभक्तिः	हे राम	हे रामौ	हे रामाः
Locative case	O raama,	O (two) Raamas	O (many) raamaas
द्वितीया विभक्तिः	रामम्	रामौ	रामान्
Accusative case(object)	Raama	two Raamas	many raamaas
तृतीया विभक्तिः	रामेण	रामाभ्याम्	रामैः
Instrumental case	by Raama	by two Raamas	by many Raamas
चतुर्थी विभक्तिः	रामाय	रामाभ्याम्	रामेभ्यः
Dative case	for Raama	for two Raamaas	for many Raamas
पञ्चमी विभक्तिः	रामात्	रामाभ्याम्	रामेभ्यः
Ablative vase	from Raama	from two Raamas	from many Raamas
षष्ठी विभक्तिः	रामस्य	रामयोः	रामाणाम्
Genitive case	of Raama	of two Raamaas	of many Raamas
सप्तमी विभक्तिः	रामे	रामयोः	रामेषु
Locative case	in Raama	in two Raamas	in many Raamas

5. Persons: 

A Verb in a sentence gets inflected depending upon the person and number of the subject to which the verb refers.

	एकवचनः	द्विवचनः	बहुवचनः
प्रथमपुरुषः	खादति	खादतः	खादन्ति
Third person	eats	(two) eat	(many) eat
मध्यमपुरुषः	खादसि	खादथः	खादथ
second person	(you) eat	(you two) eat	(you many) eat
उत्तमपुरुषः	खादामि	खादावः	खादामः
First person	(I) eat	(We two) eat	(We many) eat

It is important to note that the order in which the three persons are written in Sanskrit  is the reverse of how it is written in English. In fact प्रथमपुरुषः literally means first person, but actually is equivalent to the third person of English ! In some Sanskrit grammar books written in English,  the order is reversed so that it falls in line with the way it is written in English grammar. In my view it is not a good practice and it is best learnt and written down the Sanskrit way. Also it is important to note that the inflected verb is not sensitive to the gender of the subject, which is not the case in many Indian languages.

In a sentence in Sanskrit,  nouns get inflected depending upon the case and number .  The verb also gets inflected appropriately in line with the number and person of the subject noun. Therefore in a simple sentence the order in which the words are written is immaterial. Ex: बालकः अन्नम् खादति। अन्नम् खादति बालकः । खादति बालकः अन्नम् । On the other hand, we cannot change the order in English. Ex: Boy eats food. Food eats boy. Eats food boy.!!

6. Adjectives:

Adjectives are declined like nouns and assume the gender, number and case of the noun they qualify. Therefore even if the adjective is not placed before the noun it qualifies, the two can be related by matching the words which agree in gender, number and case. This feature facilitates  writing verses to meet the constraints of meter. It helps a reader in rearranging the word order in a verse syntactically for proper understanding.

7. Verbs:

We have noted above that verbs are conjugated in three cases and three numbers. Root of a verb without any inflexions or terminations is called  धातु. There are two sets of terminations or inflexions that a verb can take in different persons and numbers. One set is आत्मनेपद  and the other is परस्मैपद. Some धातुs take आत्मनेपद terminations, some take परस्मैपद terminations and some take both. Examples will clarify.

खादति= (He,she or it) eats. धातु, is खाद् and the termination it has taken is परस्मैपद.

मोदते= (He, she or it) rejoices. धातु is मुद् and the termination it has taken is आत्मनेपद.

याचति or याचते = (He, she or it) requests or begs. धातु is याच् and it can take either termination. धातुs which take either terminations is called उभयपदी.

Therefore while learning verbs it is necessary to know धातु as well as whether it is आत्मनेपदी, परस्मैपदी or उभयपदी.

In addition, verbs are categorized into ten different groups called गण. A verb belonging to a गण gets inflected following a certain template specific to that गण. For example खाद्, याच् and मोद् quoted above belong to the first group called भ्वादिगण.  The गण  is called भ्वादि (भू+आदि=भ्वादि).as the group is headed by धातु: भू.

Therefore while learning a verb, we also need to learn to which गण it belongs.

8. Active and passive voice:

बालकः अन्नं खादति = Boy eats food

अन्नं बालकेन खाद्यते= Food is eaten by the boy.

Irrespective of whether धातु is आत्मनेपदी, परस्मैपदी or उभयपदी, all verbs take only आत्मनेपद terminations in passive voice.

9. Tenses and moods:

There are six tenses and four moods  Three tenses for the past, one for the present and two for the future. However Sanskrit does not have any direct equivalents to present continuous or past continuous. If you want to translate, "Boy is eating" into Sanskrit, you would do well to translate it as, " बालकः खादति।".

One mood is exclusively for giving commands (आज्ञा), another for polite requests (विधि), and another for giving benedictions (आशीः). However writers do not strictly follow the restrictions especially in poetry. There is another mood to be used in sentences with a conditional clause.

A verb can thus be conjugated in each one of  these tenses and moods (a total of ten).

10. Causals:

An interesting feature of most Indian languages is the facility of what is called the causal form. From any root verb you can derive another verb which denotes that the subject is causing another person or object to do the action. It is best to understand it through an example:

बालकः अन्नं खादति। = Boy eats food.

माता बालकं अन्नं खादयति। = Mother makes the boy eat food. Or, mother feeds the boy.

खादयति is the causal derivative of खादति.

खाद् --> खादय्

The derived verb can be conjugated in all the tenses and moods.

Somebody has made a wry remark that this facility in Indian languages points to the predisposition to get any work done by an other person!

11. Indeclinables:

Words in a Sanskrit sentence are one of the three types: 1. सुबन्त 2.तिङन्त and 3.अव्यय.

सुबन्त comprises nouns, pronouns, adjectives and participles, which are inflected in the appropriate gender, case and number. तिङन्त  are the verbs which have been inflected in the appropriate tense, number and person. अव्यय are those which  remain uninflected in a sentence and are therefore indeclinables. Indeclinables include a number of adverbs, conjunctions and interjections. In the sentence

बालकः क्षिप्रं अन्नं खादति ।

बालकः  and अन्नम् are सुबन्त. खादति is तिङन्त. क्षिप्रम् (=quickly) is अव्यय.

Words न, च, खलु etc are all indeclinables.

12. Verbal derivatives:

Sanskrit is rich in verbal derivatives which enables a writer to express complex constructions with simplicity and precision. A few examples will help understand the use of such derivatives.

बालः खादन् धावति । = Boy runs while eating.

खादन्तं बालकं उपाध्यायः तर्जति । = Teacher rebukes the boy who is eating.

खादन्तीं बालिकां उपाध्यायः तर्जति । = Teacher rebukes the girl who is eating.

From root खाद् the present participle खादत् , which is declined like a masculine noun, is derived. खादन् is in प्रथमाविभक्ति-एकवचन whereas खादन्तं is in द्वितीयाविभक्ति-एकवचन. Similarly while qualifying a feminine noun the participle takes the form खादन्ती, which is declined like a feminine noun.

The above is a case of a present participle, which really acts as an adjective qualifying the noun to which it refers. Note how the present participle gets inflected according to the case and gender of the noun it qualifies.

The past participle very often plays the part of a verb itself. For example:

बालकेन अन्नं खादितम् । = Food was eaten by the boy.

बालकेन आहारः खादितः । = Food was eaten by the boy.

बालकेन फलानि खादितानि । = Fruits were eaten by the boy.

In these three sentences above, verb has been dispensed with. The past participle form of खाद्, खादित does the job of a verb. Note how it agrees with the number and gender of the noun it qualifies. It can also be used in Active voice. For example:

बालकः अन्नं खादितवान् । = Boy ate food.

Use of past participle in place of a verb in past tense is very frequent in Sanskrit as it avoids the complexities of a verb.

There are a number of verbal derivatives which act as indeclinables (अव्यय). For example:

खादित्वा = after eating; खादितुम् = to eat or for eating; खादितव्यम् = worthy of eating, should be eaten.

13. Compound words:

A writer has tremendous freedom to build compound words. In classical Sanskrit it is rarely that you come across a sentence which does not contain a compound word. Compounding is called समासः.

Some forms of  compounding are shown below:

1. An adjective can be tagged on to a noun:

कृष्णः सर्पः = कृष्णसर्पः । A black cobra. Note that it is only the end word that gets inflected.

2. In place of possessive or genitive case.

छात्रस्य् अध्यापकः = छात्राध्यापकः । teacher of a student.

3. A compound word can denote a simile.

इन्दीवरवत् श्यामः = इन्दीवरश्यामः । Dark in complexion like a black lotus.

Let us take this fairly familiar श्लोक which is recited for an auspicious beginning:

शुक्लाम्बरधरं विष्णुं शशिवर्णं चतुर्भुजम् ।

प्रसन्नवदनं ध्यायेत् सर्वविघ्नोपशान्तये ॥

All words other than विष्णुं and ध्यायेत् are compound words.

शुक्लाम्बरधरम् = (one who is) wearing white dress.

शशिवर्णम् = (one who has) the complexion of moon.

चतुर्भुजम् = (one who has) four shoulders

प्रसन्नवदनम् = (one who has) a benign face

सर्वविघ्नोपशान्तये = for the removal of all obstacles.

Note that what is given in brackets is implied and is therefore to be assumed.

Some authors in classical literature go to such ridiculous lengths of  compounding words that by the time you have reached the end of the word you have forgotten where the word started!

14. Sandhi:

When we speak out sentences fast, there is a natural tendency for the starting syllable of a word to coalesce with the last syllable of its preceding word. The great Panini and perhaps grammarians who came before him have studied scientifically how syllables coalesce in Sanskrit when words are spoken one after the other and arrived at a set of rules which govern such liasing. This phenomenon of liasing of syllables is called सन्धिः. A few examples will help to provide clarity:

शुक्ल+अम्बरम् = शुक्लाम्बरम्;

विघ्न+उपशान्तये = विघ्नोपशान्तये;

सत् +चित् = सच्चित्;

सच्चित् +आनन्द= सच्चिदानन्द.

Liasing as per Sandhi rules is compulsory within a compound word and generally within a quarter of a verse. In prose however it is left to the discretion of the writer. In fact in modern prose there is a tendency to avoid Sandhi to enable readers to follow with ease. However it is virtually impossible to wade through Sanskrit literature if a student does not acquire the skill to recognize Sandhi and split words as per Sandhi rules.

15. Double entendre:

Sometimes a compound word can be meaningfully split in more than one way. For example,

पार्वतीपरमेश्वरौ can be split as पार्वती + परमेश्वरौ or as पार्वतीप+रमेश्वरौ. This leads to interpreting a sentence in two ways and each one may be as meaningful and admissible as the other.

Besides, Sanskrit abounds in words which have more than one meaning. अमरकोष which is a versified thesaurus of synonyms contains a chapter( सर्ग ) devoted to words with multiple meanings. It has listed the various meanings of word हरि as follows:

यमानिलेन्द्रचन्द्रार्कविष्णुसिंहांशुवाजिषु । Hari means 1. Yama, the God of death, 2. wind 3.Indra, 4.moon, 5.sun, 6.God ViShNu, 7.lion, 8.ray 9. horse.

By skillful use of such words and the possibility of splitting words in different ways, poets show their mastery over language by weaving elaborate sentences which provide two or more meaningful and relevant meanings. Such poetic jugglery is called श्लेष or श्लेषालङ्कारः. Here is a a standard example:

अब्जेन त्वन्मुखं तुल्यं हरिणाहितसक्तिना ।

अब्ज means moon as well as lotus.

हरिणाहितसक्तिना can be split in two ways: हरिणा + हितसक्तिना as well as हरिण+आहितसक्तिना. Thus a pair of meanings can be derived as follows: 1. Your face is like a lotus which is attached to the sun(हरि). 2. Your face is like the moon which is attached to the rabbit (rabbit-like mark on the moon).

16. Direct speech :

In Sanskrit there is no equivalent to indirect speech. If A wants to report to C what B told A, A will simply report the way he heard from B as direct speech. Puranas and epics have a way of telling multilayered stories. Perhaps in Mahabharata there are 3 or 4 levels in which the story is narrated. If indirect speech were possible it would have been confusion worse confounded! That is perhaps the reason why the poet introduces जनमेजय उवाच, वैशम्पायन उवाच, युधिष्ठिर उवाच etc.!

17. Verses verses everywhere:

An important characteristic of Sanskrit as a medium of communication was that almost everything was versified! There is hardly any branch of knowledge, whether it be philosophy, ethics, mythology,  lexicography, astronomy, mathematics, arts or science which is not written in verses. Study of sonorous meters in poetry is highly evolved and contains interesting aspects of mathematics. Right from the Vedic times, there evolved a versatile and simple meter called अनुष्टुप् which has four quarters (पाद) and each quarter contains 8 syllables (अक्षर) with some minimal constraints. It is perhaps the only meter which has the highest usage in world writing. Although it was used with ease by one and all since ancient times, it is a curious fact that it  remained poorly defined till very recent times.

Names of Birds in Sanskrit

Cuckoo	कोकिलः, पिकः
Dove	कपोतः
Owl	उलूकः
Cock-Hen	कुक्कुटः
Sparrow	चटकः
Crow	काकः
Vulture	गृधः
Parrot	शुकः
Stork	वकः
The King of Birds	गरुडः
Peacock	मयूरः
Quail	वर्तकः
Swan	हंसः
Bee	मधुपः

Names of Animals in Sanskrit

Lion	सिंहः
Tiger	व्याघ्रः
Pig	वराहः
Monkey	वानरः
Bear	भल्लूकः
Buffalo	महिषः
Jackal	श्रृगालः
Cat	बिडालः
Wolf	वृकः
Deer	हरिणः
Rabbit	शशः
Elephant	गजः
Horse	अश्वः
Bull	वृषभः
Dog	सारमेयः
Cow	धेनुः
Camel	उष्ट्रः
Donkey	गर्दभः
Goat	अजः
Calf	वत्सः
Leopard	चित्रकः

Sanskrit Literature

Literature in Sanskrit begins with the Vedas, and continues with the Sanskrit Epics ofIron Age India; the golden age of Classical Sanskrit literature dates to late Antiquity(roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries AD). Literary production saw a late bloom in the 11th century before declining after 1100 AD. There are contemporary efforts towards revival, with events like the "All-India Sanskrit Festival" (since 2002) holding composition contests. Vedic Sanskrit scholar Nicholas Kazanas asserts that beginnings of Sanskrit literature were found between 4000BC and 2000BC, which would make Vedic literature some of the earliest in world history if correct.

Given its extensive use in religious literature, primarily in Hinduism, and the fact that most modern Indian languages have been directly derived from or strongly influenced by Sanskrit, the language and its literature is of great importance in Indian culture akin to that of Greek and Latin in European culture. Some Sanskrit literature such as the Yoga-Sutras of Patanjali and the Upanishads were translated into Arabic and Persian.^[1] The Panchatantra was also translated into Persian.^[2]

Contents   [hide]  1 The Vedas 2 Sutra literature 3 The Epics 3.1 The Mahabharata 3.2 The Ramayana 4 Classical Sanskrit literature 4.1 Drama 4.2 Scholarly treatises 4.3 Stories 4.4 Classical poetry 4.5 Puranas 5 Later Sanskrit literature 6 Modern Sanskrit literature 7 See also 8 References 9 Further reading 10 External links

[edit]The Vedas

Main article: Vedas

Composed between approximately 1500 BC and 600 BC (the Late Bronze Age to Early Iron Age) in pre-classical Sanskrit, Vedic literature forms the basis for the further development of Hinduism. There are four Vedas - Rig, Yajur, Sāma and Atharva, each with a main Samhita and a number of circum-vedic genres, including Brahmanas,Aranyakas,Vedang i.e. Grhyasutras and Shrautasutras and Dharmasutras. The main period of Vedic literary activity falls into ca. the 9th to 7th centuries when the variousshakhas (schools) compiled and memorized their respective corpora.

The older Upanishads (BAU, ChU, JUB, KathU^{[disambiguation needed]}, MaitrU) belong to the Vedic period, but the larger part of the Muktika canon is post-Vedic. The Aranyakas form part of both the Brahmana and Upanishad corpus.

[edit]Sutra literature

Main article: Sutra

See also: Shulba Sutras, Kalpa (Vedanga), Dharma Sutras, and Shastra

Continuing the tradition of the late Vedic Shrautasutra literature, Late Iron Age scholarship (ca. 500 to 100 BCE) organized knowledge into Sutra treatises, including the Vedanga and the religious or philosophical Brahma Sutras, Yoga Sutras, Nyaya Sutras.

In the Vedanga disciplines of grammar and phonetics, no author had greater influence than Pāṇini with his Aṣṭādhyāyī (ca. 5th century BC). In the tradition of Sutra literature exposing the full grammar of Sanskrit in extreme brevity, Panini's brilliance lies in the nature of his work of a prescriptive generative grammar, involving metarules, transformations and recursion. Being prescriptive for all later grammatical works, such as Patanjali's Mahābhāṣya, Pāṇini's grammar effectively fixed the grammar of Classical Sanskrit. The Backus-Naur Formor BNF grammars used to describe modern programming languages have significant similarities with Panini's grammar rules.

[edit]The Epics

Main article: Indian epic poetry

The period between approximately the 6th to 1st centuries BC saw the composition and redaction of the two great epics, theMahabharata and the Ramayana, with subsequent redaction progressing down to the 4th century AD. They are known as itihasa, or "that which occurred".

[edit]The Mahabharata

The battle of Kurukshetra, folio from the Mahabharata.

Main article: Mahabharata

The Mahabharata (Great Bharata) is one of the longest poetic works in the world. While it is clearly a poetic epic, it contains large tracts of Hindu mythology, philosophy and religious tracts. Traditionally, authorship of the Mahabharata is attributed to the sageVyasa.According to the Adi-parva of the Mahabharata (81, 101-102), the text was originally 8,800 verses when it was composed by Vyasa and was known as the Jaya(Victory), which later became 24,000 verses in the Bharata recited by Vaisampayana.

The broad sweep of the story of the Mahabharata chronicles the story of the conflict between two families for control of Hastinapur, a city in Ancient India.

The impact of the Mahabharata on India and Hinduism cannot be stressed enough. Having been molded by Indian culture, it has in turn molded the development of Indian culture. Thousands of later writers would draw freely from the story and sub-stories of the Mahabharata.

[edit]The Ramayana

Main article: Ramayana

While not as long as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana is still twice as long as the Iliad and Odyssey put together. Traditionally, the authorship is attribued to the Hindu sage Valmiki, who is referred to as Adikavi, or "first poet." Valmiki in the Ramayana introduced the Anushtubh meter for the first time. Like the Mahabharata, the Ramayana was also handed down orally and evolved through several centuries before being transferred into writing. It includes tales that form the basis for modern Hindu festivals and even contains a description of the same marriage practice still observed in contemporary times by people of Hindu persuasion.

The story deals with Prince Rama (Hindi: Rām), his exile and the abduction of his wife by the Rakshasa king Ravana, and the Lankanwar. Similar to the Mahabharata, the Ramayana also has several full-fledged stories appearing as sub-plots.

The Ramayana has also played a similar and equally important role in the development of Indian culture as the Mahabharata.

The Ramayana is also extant in Ramayana: Southeast Asian versions

See also: Hikayat Seri Rama, Kakawin Rāmâyaṇa, Phra Lak Phra Lam, Ramakien, Reamker, and Yama Zatdaw

[edit]Classical Sanskrit literature

The classical period of Sanskrit literature dates to the Gupta period and the successive pre-Islamic Middle kingdoms of India, spanning roughly the 3rd to 8th centuries CE.

[edit]Drama

Main article: Sanskrit drama

Shakuntala stops to look back atDushyanta, Raja Ravi Varma(1848-1906), scene from Abhijñānaśākuntalam.

Drama as a distinct genre of Sanskrit literature emerges in the final centuries BC, influenced partly by Vedic mythology and partly by Hellenistic drama. It reaches its peak between the 4th and 7th centuries before declining together with Sanskrit literature as a whole.

Famous Sanskrit dramatists include Śhudraka, Bhasa, Asvaghosa and Kālidāsa. Though numerous plays written by these playwrights are still available, little is known about the authors themselves.

One of the earliest known Sanskrit plays is the Mrichakatika, thought to have been composed byŚhudraka in the 2nd century BC. The Natya Shastra (ca. 2nd century AD, literally "Scripture of Dance," though it sometimes translated as "Science of Theatre'") is a keystone work in Sanskrit literature on the subject of stagecraft. Bhasa and Kālidāsa are major early authors of the first centuries AD, Kālidāsa qualifying easily as the greatest poet and playwright in Sanskrit He deals primarily with famous Hindu legends and themes; three famous plays by Kālidāsa areVikramōrvaśīyam (Vikrama and Urvashi), Mālavikāgnimitram (Malavika and Agnimitra), and the play that he is most known for: Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Shakuntala).

Late (post 6th century) dramatists include Dandin and Sriharsha. The only surviving ancient Sanskrit drama theatre is Koodiyattam. Which is being preserved in Kerala by the Chakyar community.

[edit]Scholarly treatises

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Main articles: Tantras, Shastra, Siddhanta, and Jataka

Further information: Jyotihshastra

The earliest surviving treatise on astrology is the Yavanajataka "sayings of the Greeks" (3rd century). ClassicalHindu astrology is based on early medieval compilations, notably the Bṛhat Parāśara Horāśāstra and Sārāvalī(7th to 8th century). The earliest surviving treatise on (non-divinatory) Indian astronomy predates the Yavanajataka: the Vedanga Jyotisha of Ladaga documents the state of in the Maurya period. The astronomy of the classical Gupta period, the centuries following Indo-Greek contact, is documented in treatises known asSiddhantas (which means "established conclusions" ^[3] ). Varahamihira in his Pancha-Siddhantika contrasts five of these: The Surya Siddhanta besides the Paitamaha Siddhantas (which is more similar to the "classical"Vedanga Jyotisha), the Paulisha and Romaka Siddhantas (directly based on Hellenistic astronomy) and theVasishta Siddhanta.

The earliest treatise in Indian mathematics is the Āryabhaṭīya (written ca. 500 CE), a work on astronomy and mathematics. The mathematical portion of the Āryabhaṭīya was composed of 33 sūtras (in verse form) consisting of mathematical statements or rules, but without any proofs.^[4] However, according to (Hayashi 2003, p. 123), "this does not necessarily mean that their authors did not prove them. It was probably a matter of style of exposition." From the time of Bhaskara I (600 CE onwards), prose commentaries increasingly began to include some derivations (upapatti).

"Tantra" is a general term for a scientific, magical or mystical treatise and mystical texts both Hindu andBuddhist said to concern themselves with five subjects, 1. the creation, 2. the destruction of the world, 3. the worship of the gods, 4. the attainment of all objects, 5. the four modes of union with the supreme spirit by meditation. These texts date to the entire lifespan of Classical Sanskrit literature.

[edit]Stories

Main articles: Panchatantra and Hitopadesha

Sanskrit fairy tales and fables are chiefly characterised by ethical reflections and proverbial philosophy. A peculiar style, marked by the insertion of a number of different stories within the framework of a single narrative, made its way to Persian and Arabic literatures, exerting a major influence on works such as One Thousand and One Nights.

The two most important collections are Panchatantra and Hitopadesha; originally intended as manuals for the instruction of kings in domestic and foreign policy, they belong to the class of literature which the Hindus call nīti-śāstra, or "Science of Political Ethics".

Other notable prose works include a collection of pretty and ingenious fairy tales, with a highly Oriental colouring, the Vetāla-panchaviṃśati or "Twenty-five Tales of the Vetāla" (a demon supposed to occupy corpses), the Siṃhāsana-dvātriṃçikā or "Thirty-two Stories of the Lion-seat" (i.e. throne), which also goes by the name of Vikrama-charita, or "Adventures of Vikrama" and the Śuka-saptati, or "Seventy Stories of a Parrot". These three collections of fairy tales are all written in prose and are comparatively short.

Somadeva's Kathā-sarit-sāgara or "Ocean of Rivers of Stories" is a work of special importance: composed in verse and is of very considerable length. It contains more than 22,000 shlokas, equal to nearly one-fourth of the Mahābhārata.

Somadeva's Kathā-sarit-sāgara is derived from Gunadhya's Brhat-Katha of which there is a Thirteenth Century Fragment The Travels Of Pandit Ganja Deen The Sadhaka

Fable collections, originally serving as the handbooks of practical moral philosophy, provided an abundant reservoir of ethical maxims that become so popular that works consisting exclusively of poetical aphorisms started to appear. The most important are the two collections by the highly-gifted Bhartṛhari, entitled respectively Nīti-śataka, or "Century of Conduct," and Vairāgya-śataka, or "Century of Renunciation." The keynote prevailing in this new ethical poetry style is the doctrine of the vanity of human life, which was developed before the rise of Buddhism in the sixth century B.C., and has dominated Indian thought ever since.

[edit]Classical poetry

This refers to the poetry produced from the approximately the 3rd to 8th centuries. Kālidāsa is the foremost example of a classical poet.

But a striking characteristic of Indian literary tradition is that sometimes poets show off their technical dexterity with highly Oulipian word-games, like stanzas that read the same backwards and forwards, words that can be split in different ways to produce different meanings, sophisticated metaphors, and so on. This style is referred to as Kāvya. A classic example is the poet Bharavi and his magnum opus, the Kiratarjuniya (6th-7th century). Magh is noted for his epic poem (mahAkAvya) Shishupala Vadha, the 20 cantos of which are based on the Mahabharata episode where the defiant king Shishupala is beheaded by Krishna's chakra (disc)

The greatest works of poetry in this period are the five Mahākāvyas, or "great composition"s:

• Kumārasambhava by Kālidāsa
• Raghuvamsha by Kālidāsa
• Kiratarjuniya by Bharavi
• Shishupala Vadha by Māgha
• Naishadha-Charita by Sriharsha

Some scholars include the Bhattikavya as a sixth Mahākāvya.^[5]

Other major literary works from this period are Kadambari by Banabhatta, the first Sanskrit novelist (6th-7th centuries), the Kama Sutraby Vatsyayana, and the three shatakas of Bhartṛhari.

[edit]Puranas

Main article: Puranas

The corpus of the Hindu Puranas likewise falls into the classical period of Sanskrit literature, dating to between the 5th and 10th centuries, and marks the emergence of the Vaishnava and Shaiva denominations of classical Hinduism. The Puranas are classified into a Mahā- ("great") and a Upa- ("lower, additional") corpus. Traditionally^[6] they are said to narrate five subjects, called pañcalakṣaṇa ("five distinguishing marks"):

Sargaśca pratisargasca vamśo manvantarāņi ca I

Vamśānucaritam caiva Purāņam pañcalakśaņam II

They are:

1. Sarga — The creation of the universe.
2. Pratisarga — Secondary creations, mostly re-creations after dissolution.
3. Vamśa — Genealogy of royals and sages.
4. Manvañtara — Various eras.
5. Vamśānucaritam — Dynastic histories.

A Purana usually gives prominence to a certain deity (Shiva, Vishnu or Krishna, Durga) and depicts the other gods as subservient.

[edit]Later Sanskrit literature

The Avadhuta Gita, an extreme nondual (Sanskrit: advaita) text, is held by Western scholarship to date in its present form from the 9th or 10th centuries.^[7] Some important works from the 11th century include the Katha-sarit-sagara and the Gita Govinda of Jayadeva.Nagananda, attributed to King Harsha, is an outstanding drama that outlines the story of King Jimutavahana, who sacrifices himself to save the tribe of serpents. It is also unique in that it invokes Lord Buddha in what is a predominantly Hindu drama.

The Katha-sarita-sagara (An Ocean of Stories) by Somadeva was an 11th century poetic adaptation in Sanskrit of Brihat-katha, written in the 5th century BC in the Paishachi dialect. One of the famous series of stories in this work is the Vikrama and Vetāla series, known across India today. On the other side of the spectrum, of the 'Bhana' style of drama, Ubhayabhisarika is a one-person drama of an endearing lecher who knows every courtesan and her family by name.

The Gita Govinda (The song of Govinda) by the Oriya composer Jayadeva is the story of Krishna's love for Radha, and is written in spectacularly lyrical and musical Sanskrit.

Basohli painting (circa 1730 AD) depicting a scene from Jayadeva's Gita Govinda.

A central text for several Hindu sects in eastern India, the Gita Govinda is recited regularly at major Hindu pilgrimage sites such as Jagannath temple at Puri, Orissa. TheAshtapadis of the Gita Govinda also form a staple theme in Bharatanatyam and Odissiclassical dance recitals.

Beyond the 11th century, the use of Sanskrit for general literature declined, most importantly because of the emergence of literature in vernacular Indian languages (notably Hindi, Marathi, Telugu, and Kannada). Sanskrit continued to be used, largely for Hindu religious and philosophical literature. Sanskrit literature fueled literature in vernacular languages, and the Sanskrit language itself continued to have a profound influence over the development of Indian literature in general.

Attempts at revival of Sanskrit have been undertaken in the Republic of India since its foundation in 1947.

[edit]Modern Sanskrit literature

This section requires expansion.

See also: Sahitya Akademi Award for Sanskrit

Literature in Sanskrit continues to be produced, despite its relative neglect by both Sanskritists and non-Sanskritists. Since 1967, theSahitya Akademi, India's national academy of letters, has had an award for the best creative work written that year in Sanskrit. In 2009,Satyavrat Shastri became the first Sanskrit author to win the Jnanpith Award, India's highest literary award.^[8] Some other modern Sanskrit composers include Abhiraj Rajendra Mishra (known as Triveṇī Kavi, composer of short stories and several other genres of Sanskrit literature), Jagadguru Rambhadracharya (known as Kavikularatna, composer of two epics, several minor works and commentaries on Prasthānatrayī).

These works, however, have a very small readership. In the introduction to Ṣoḍaśī: An Anthology of Contemporary Sanskrit Poets(1992), Radhavallabh Tripathi writes:^[9]

Sanskrit is known for its classical literature, even though the creative activity in this language has continued without pause from the medieval age till today. […] Consequently, contemporary Sanskrit writing suffers from a prevailing negligence.

However, Tripathi also points out the abundance of contemporary Sanskrit literature:

On the other hand, the number of authors who appear to be very enthusiastic about writing in Sanskrit during these days is not negligible. […] Dr. Ramji Upadhyaya in his treatise on modern Sanskrit drama has discussed more than 400 Sanskrit plays written and published during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. In a thesis dealing with Sanskritmahākāvyas written in a single decade, 1961–1970, the researcher has noted 52 Sanskrit mahākāvyas (epic poems) produced in that very decade.

Most current Sanskrit poets are employed as teachers, either pandits in pāṭhaśālas or university professors.^[9]

Famous Indian Dance Drama, Mrtyuh by Srjan, Script written by Vanikavi Manmohan Acharya

Manmohan Acharya is a poet and published author in Sanskrit literature. His contribution appears significant by inspiring the classical dance, Odissi, for the first time to enter into Bollywood with his Sanskrit lyrics. His Gita-Milindam contains 15 gunjans (songs) in different melodious rhythms. Manomohan Acharya speaks for the common mass. His creative technique suggests his attitude to life. Looking at his off-beat themes, none can deny that he is projecting the voice of the mass and hence is a postmodern poet.^[10][11] A devotional song from his Gitamohanam ^[12] is included in the 2009 movie, The Desire. He authored many Sanskrit poetry to his credit. Some worth-mentioning are Gita-bhaaratam, Palli-panchaasika(Khandakavya), subhasa-charitam (Mahakavya), Sri Sivananda-Laharika (Philosophical Kavya) and Yati-giti-satakam (Sataka-kavya). As a playwright, Manomohan Acharya has written many dance dramas, including Arjuna-Pratijnaa, Shrita-kamalam, Pada-pallavam, Divya-Jayadevam, Pingalaa, Mrtyu, Sthitaprajnah, Tantram,^[13] Purva-sakuntalam ,Uttara-sakuntalam and Raavanah^[14].